Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water and Associated Health Risks in Primary Schools of the Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria
Yakubu Mohammed BABA
Department of Environmental Health Science, Abia State University, Uturu, Abia State, Nigeria.
Agwu Nkwa AMADI
Department of Public Health, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.
Okechukwu Kalu IRO
Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Management, Abia State University, Uturu, Abia State, Nigeria.
Ugo Uwadiako ENEBELI
*
Department of Community Medicine, Rhema University, Aba-Owerri Road, Aba, Abia State, Nigeria.
Eziyi Iche KALU
Department of Medical Microbiology, Gregory University, Uturu, Abia State, Nigeria.
Kalu Obasi OJO
Department of Environmental Health Science, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria.
Yakubu Joel CHERIMA
Department of Policy and Strategic Studies, University of Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria.
Faith Adamma KALU
Department of Biochemistry, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria.
Perfection Chinyere IGWE
Department of Internal Medicine, Federal Medical Centre, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria.
Justin Junior KALU
Department of Community Medicine, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross Rivers State, Nigeria.
Beauty Olamma KALU
Department of Pharmacy, Igbinedion University, Okada, Edo State, Nigeria.
Rejoice Kaka HASSAN
Department of Community Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria.
Uchenna Stephen NWOKENNA
Department of Policy and Strategic Studies, University of Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria.
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Abstract
This study assessed the bacteriological quality of drinking water sources and associated health risks among primary school children in the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria, to inform Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene interventions. This is a cross-sectional study in the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria, carried out between April and June 2025. Twenty-four public primary schools were selected using multistage random sampling across three area councils (Abuja Municipal Area Council, Bwari, and Kuje). A total of 1,514 pupils participated. Fifty-two water samples were collected in sterile containers from main drinking sources (taps and water bottles) and analyzed for bacterial contamination using Nutrient Agar, MacConkey Agar, and Eosin Methylene Blue Agar through membrane filtration and multiple tube fermentation techniques. Indicators included total coliforms, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterococci. Health status and water access data were gathered using questionnaires and observation checklists. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 29, employing descriptive statistics and chi-square tests for associations, alongside multiple regression for predictors of related diseases. The results showed that of the 52 samples, 84.62% exhibited bacterial growth on Nutrient Agar (range: 2.0x10⁰ to 2.81x10² CFU/ml), while 48.08% showed growth on MacConkey Agar (5.0x10⁰ to 1.86x10² CFU/ml) and Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (1.2x10⁰ to 2.64x10² CFU/ml), exceeding the World Health Organization standards. A significant association existed between poor water quality and water-related disease prevalence (P<0.001). Multivariate regression indicated that water source contamination, main drinking water source, and treatment status significantly predicted related disease prevalence (F [9, 1504] = 26.545, P<0.001, R=0.370). In conclusion, drinking water in the Federal Capital Territory primary schools is highly contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, posing substantial health risks to pupils. Urgent government-led investments in water infrastructure, treatment, hygiene education, and routine monitoring are essential to enhance school Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene systems and reduce disease burden.
Keywords: Bacteriological contamination, drinking water, faecal coliforms, water sanitation and hygiene, primary schools